Modeling: Definition, key factors and fields of application in psychotherapy

Modeling, also called imitation, observational learning or vicarious learning is a fundamental strategy of intervention, alone or in conjunction with other techniques, for the psychotherapist using the cognitive-behavioral paradigm as a model reference. This PsychologyOnline article aims to analyze the subject of Shaping: definition, key factors and fields of application in psychotherapy. Visualizing like this, a triple point of view.

Index

1. Article Summary
2. Theoretical framework
3. Modeling: Theoretical Foundation
4. Basic processes involved in modeling
5. General procedure for applying modeling
6. Classification of modeling techniques
7. Key factors of modeling effectiveness
8. Fundamental principles of effective modeling
9. Areas of application of modeling

First, as an introductory theoretical framework, we briefly describe the fundamental principles underlying modeling as well as the processes involved in it.

Below is proposed a

The Study of Imitation in Psychology it was omitted almost entirely until the pioneering work of Miller and Dollard (1941) appeared. These authors reviewed the theories that existed at the time and formulated their own concept of imitation using a basically behavioral context. Twenty years had to pass before the importance of learning by imitation for the development of personality and social learning was clearly revealed in a book by Bandura and Walters (1963). Since then the name Bandura has become almost synonymous with the study of observational learning and its effects on behavior Social. The term 'modeling' has replaced imitation as a generic expression that encompasses a variety of observational learning processes.

Although there are various theories about the nature and processes that take place in modeling, the The position advocated by Bandura seems to be the one that is most widely accepted today (Kanfer and Goldstein, 1987). In 1969, with the publication of Albert Bandura's book 'Principles of Behavior Modification', the foundations were laid for operationalize modeling techniques in social learning theory (Olivares and Méndez, 1998).

Cormier and Cormier (1994) define modeling as "the observational learning process where the behavior of an individual or group -the model- acts as a stimulus for the thoughts, attitudes or behaviors of another individual or group that observes the execution of the model"

The basic features of the theoretical foundation of modeling, proposed by Bandura himself, are presented in a concise and concrete way by Olivares and Méndez (1998) in the following terms:

Basic Assumption

Most of human behavior is learned by observation through modeling.

Fundamental premise

Any behavior that can be acquired or modified through direct experience is, in principle, susceptible to be learned or modified by observing the behavior of others and the consequences derive.

Symbolic Mediation Processes

The subject acquires symbolic representations of the modeled behavior and not mere specific E-R associations.

General Application Procedure and Modeling Effects

The subject observes the behavior of the model and imitates it with the aim of:

• Acquire new response patterns

Acquisition Effect: Learning new behaviors or patterns of behaviors that did not initially appear in the person's behavioral repertoire.

• Strengthen or weaken responses

Inhibitory effect: The observer notes the lack of positive consequences or the contingency of negative consequences after the performance of the behavior by the model.

Disinhibitory effect: Disinhibition of an observer's behavior after verifying that the model performs it without experiencing any negative consequences.

• Facilitate the execution of responses already existing in the subject's repertoire

Facilitation Effect: It facilitates the execution of previously learned behavioral patterns as a consequence of observing a model.

Bandura and Jeffery (1973) distinguish four basic processes involved in any modeling process:

• The Attention

The observer's activity consists in concentrating on what is modeled.

• Retention

It refers to the symbolic or linguistic coding, cognitive organization and covert testing of the model presented.

• The reproduction

The observer's ability to reproduce, rehearse, or practice the behavior for which the pattern has been observed.

• The motivation

Favorable predisposition of the observer to assume the proposed objectives as their own through the use of modeling techniques.

Each and every one of these basic processes, common to all modeling procedures, are deeply interrelated and are essential factors (prerequisites) for the success of any therapeutic process that uses modeling as a basic strategy of intervention.

Although modeling is capable of being used through multiple technical variants, as I will list later, it is possible to offer from the work of various authors (Cruzado, 1995; Olivares and Méndez, 1998) a basic sequence in its application that would include the following nine steps elementals:

1. Establishment of therapeutic objectives, in the short, medium and long term.
2. Ranking (progressive difficulty), if necessary, of the behaviors to be modeled.
3. The therapist provides specific instructions to the client on the key aspects that he must attend to during the modeling process:

3.1. Stimuli situational present.

3.2.Dimensions relevant to the behavior of the model.
3.3. Consequences that are derived after the performance of the behavior.

• The model executes the previously established behaviors and verbally describes what he is doing and the anticipated consequences of his behavior.
• The therapist asks the client to describe the behavior carried out by the model, its antecedents and its consequences.
• Instruct the client to put into practice what was observed in the session.
• Support the client during the performance (verbal signals or physical guides) and provide positive feedback.
• Carry out the necessary conduct rehearsals until the conduct is consolidated.
• Planning of therapeutic tasks between sessions.

Modeling presents a large number of technical variants, classifiable according to a series of basic dimensions (Labrador et al., 1993; Olivares and Méndez, 1998):

1. The Behavior of the Observer:

   1.1. Passive Modeling: The subject only observes the behavior of the model, without reproducing it during the training session.

   1.2. Active Modeling: The subject observes the execution of the model and then reproduces the modeled behavior in the same treatment session.

2. The Presentation of the Model:

   2.1. Symbolic Modeling: The modeling is done through a video recording, film, cassette or any other audiovisual support.

   2.2 Live Modeling: The model performs the behavior in the presence of the observer

   2.3 Covert Modeling: The subject must imagine the behavior of the model.

3. The Adequacy of the Model's Behavior:

   3.1. Positive Modeling: Model appropriate behavior or target behavior.

   3.2. Negative Modeling: Model unwanted behaviors.

   3.3. Mixed Modeling: Use of negative modeling followed by positive modeling.

4. The Degree of Difficulty of the Behavior to be Modeled:

   4.1. Modeling of Intermediate Behaviors: Terminal behavior is decomposed into intermediate behaviors that are progressively modeled and assimilated by the subject.

   4.2. Behavior-Objective Modeling: In cases where the behavior-objective is not excessively complex, it is modeled directly.

5. The Number of Observers:

   5.1. Individual Modeling: Modeling is performed before a single observer, generally in therapeutic settings.

   5.2. Group Modeling: Modeling occurs before a group, generally in educational contexts.

6. The Number of Models:

   6.1. Simple Modeling: Presentation of a single model

   6.2. Multiple Modeling: Various models are used, different and similar to the observer.

7. The Identity of the Model:

   7.1. Self-modeling: The model is the observer himself. Use of audiovisual media.

   7.2. Modeling: Model and observer are different people. The most common strategy.

8. The Nature of the Model:

   8.1. Human Modeling: The model is a person who must have characteristics of similarity and / or prestige for the observer.

   8.2. Non-Human Modeling: Cartoons, puppets, dolls or fantastic beings are used as models, preferably (although not exclusively) with children.

9. The Competition Shown by the Model:

   9.1. Mastery modeling: The model has the necessary skills and resources to effectively handle the situation from the beginning.

   9.2. Coping Modeling: The model initially shows observer-like skills and goes progressively demonstrating the skills necessary to resolve the situation in a way satisfactory.

The simple observation of the behavior of a third party does not necessarily guarantee the obtaining of significant psychotherapeutic results. There are a number of key factors and variables that need to be taken into account when planning, for part of the psychotherapist, a modeling procedure with certain guarantees of success (Kanfer and Goldstein, 1987):

A) Factors that improve acquisition (attention and retention)

Model Features:

• Similarity (sex, age, race, and attitudes).
• Competence.
• Cordiality.
• Prestige.

Observer Characteristics:

• Information processing and retention capacity.
• Uncertainty.
• Anxiety level.
• Personality factors.

Characteristics of the way in which the model is presented:

• Real or symbolic model.
• Several models.
• Progressive Skills Model (Coping)
• Graduated procedures.
• Instructions.
• Comment of characteristics and rules.
• Summary made by the observer.
• Test.
• Minimization of distracting stimuli.

B) Factors that improve performance (reproduction and motivation)

Factors that provide an incentive:

• Vicar Reinforcement.
• Vicarious extinction of the fear to respond.
• Direct reinforcement.
• Imitation.

Factors that affect the quality of the implementation of the behavior:

• Behavior test.
• Participatory modeling.

Factors that affect the transfer and the generalization of the results:

• Similar training situation-subject natural environment.
• Answer practice.
• Incentives in the natural environment.
• Learning principles.
• Variations in the training situation.

Taking the aforementioned as a reference and based on the contributions made by various authors (Cormier and Cormier, 1994; Gavino 1997; Kanfer and Goldstein 1987; Muñoz and Bermejo, 2001; Olivares and Méndez, 1998) in relation to the effective application of modeling in a psychotherapeutic context, it is possible to extract a series of guiding principles, both with respect to the modeling itself and the behavior rehearsal process itself and feedback, necessary in any modeling process cash:

Modeling Principles

1. Optimization of the model used in the process. Characteristics similar to the observer, prestige, similar competence - coping competence or emphasis on affective components.
2. Use of a variety of models. Mastery, Negative, Self-modeled, Simple ...
3. Grading and ranking of the modeling process. Decomposition of complex behaviors into simpler ones that facilitate and ensure learning.
4. Use of learning strategies that favor the assimilation process. Use of explanatory summaries (client or therapist), repetition of essential keys, elimination of distracting stimuli (noise, anxiety ...) or use of specific instructions before-during-after the modeling.
5. Programming of reinforcers for the behavior of the model. The execution of the desired behavior by the model is systematically reinforced.

Behavioral Essay Principles

1. Similarity between the programmed practice and the client's natural environment.
2. Repetition and variety of training situations.
3. Scheduled practice in the client's natural environment
4. Use of means of induction in the face of particularly difficult behaviors. For example through the use of physical or verbal guides, support and advice, repeated practice by fragments of behavior, increase progressive time / difficulty / risk of the practice or the use of complementary techniques such as chaining and molding.
5. Programming of effective reinforcers in the natural environment of the client

Feedback Principles

1. Specific Feedback. Avoid generalities, ambiguities, and excessive length. Clear, short, concise and concrete feedback.
2. Behavioral Feedback. Focus on the behavioral aspects of the behavior rehearsal, over personal evaluations.
3. Comprehensive Feedback. Adapt to the client's own language, limiting technical jargon and unnecessary and superfluous complexity.
4. Positive Feedback. Limit unnecessary criticism and encourage small progress and efforts to change.
5. Flexible Feedback. Use of other forms of feedback, such as video recording, so as not to depend exclusively on verbal feedback.

At times, modeling is applied as the sole therapeutic strategy to help the client acquire responses or extinguish fears. In other circumstances, modeling is a component of a global intervention strategy (Muñoz and Bermejo, 2001; Cormier and Cormier, 1994)

In recent years, the number of successful applications of modeling-based intervention strategies in the field of health psychology and psychotherapy has been numerous. Some of the most significant are the following:

• Many of the clinical applications of modeling principles fall into the category of disinhibitory effects. The behaviors inhibited by fear or anxiety, as is the case with phobias, have been successfully treated by making phobic individuals witnesses that the models carry out these feared behaviors and experience positive consequences (Bandura, 1971).
• The use of the inhibitory effects of modeling has also received significant attention in clinical settings. Customers who manifest excessive socially disapproved behaviors (e.g. alcoholics or delinquents with difficulty controlling their behavior) can strengthen their own inhibitions against these behaviors by observing a model that experiences negative consequences for performing those same actions (Bandura, 1971).
• In clinical contexts, modeling has been used in the treatment of behaviors inhibited by fear or anxiety. The classic study by Bandura, Blanchard and Ritter includes a successful application of modeling techniques to the treatment of snake phobia. The subjects of this study were divided into three treatment groups and one control group. The three treatment strategies chosen were: symbolic modeling, in vivo modeling with directed participation and a classical treatment based on systematic desensitization. The results of this study showed that the two modeling groups were superior to the sensitization group, and that the modeling group The participant was even better than the group whose treatment strategy relied on the use of symbolic modeling (Kanfer and Goldstein, 1987)
• Modeling is an effective technique for behavior modification of people of all ages (children, adolescents and adults), of many types (normal, delinquent, retarded, psychotic) and with many different problems (fears, behavioral deficits, excesses of conduct) Modeling can be equally effective with the professionals themselves and paraprofessionals who deal with help others to change their own behavior (psychotherapists, nurses or social workers) Training of these types of professionals has used successfully examples of the desired behavior -symbolic modeling- and demonstrations of the behavior in question -behavioral modeling- (Kanfer and Goldstein, 1987).
• Modeling has proven effective for reinstallation in psychotic adults of previously existing behaviors in their repertoire such as self-care skills and language or for the promotion of prosocial and altruistic behaviors (Otero-Lopez et al., 1994).
• Participant modeling has been shown to be especially effective for the coping with anxiety-generating situations. Participant modeling favors the immediate achievement of high levels of behavioral and attitudinal change, and of one's perceived efficacy when handling fear-producing stimuli. Participant modeling in combination with self-verbalizations (thoughts out loud) significantly reduced specific phobias. It has also been applied to reduce avoidance behaviors and the feelings associated with situations or activities that provoke fear in the subject. With the use of participant modeling with phobic clients the satisfactory execution of activities or situations that produce fear helps the person to learn the effective management of that type of situations. Other applications of participant modeling include people with behavioral deficits or with lack of skills such as social communication, assertiveness or physical well-being (Cormier and Cormier, 1994).
• Cognitive modeling in combination with self-instructional training has been successfully applied to train schizophrenics hospitalized to modify their thoughts, attention and verbal behavior - self-overbalization - while executing tasks (Cormier and Cormier, 1994).
• The modeling is applied in phobic problems,due to its disinhibitory effects, within the field of Health psychology in aspects such as reduction of fears of surgical interventions or dental treatments (Ortigosa and cols., 1996).
• In the health field, modeling is used to inhibit unhealthy habits,as for example in drug addiction prevention programs (Fraga et al, 1996), as well as in numerous health problem prevention programs, in the psychological treatment of patients affected by various medical problems and in preparation for painful medical interventions (Muñoz and Bermejo, 2001).
• Modeling is a fundamental strategy within the package of techniques commonly used in Behavior Modification for the training of social skills and assertiveness (Caballo, 1993; Gavino 1997). The fundamental techniques or components used in the training of social skills and assertiveness are; 1) Instructions 2) Modeling 3) Behavioral rehearsal 4) Positive reinforcement and 5) Feedback (Olivares and Méndez, 1998).
• Similarly, modeling constitutes a fundamental link in training in stress inoculation, applicable to a wide variety of disorders (Muñoz and Bermejo, 2001).

This article is merely informative, in Psychology-Online we do not have the power to make a diagnosis or recommend a treatment. We invite you to go to a psychologist to treat your particular case.

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